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• θ_si can be measured as the polarization angle of quantum entangled X-rays at the degenerate frequency of a maximal Bell state. As an angle θ_si=3.26239 rad ± 2 μrad; as a momentum θ_si=3.26239030392(48) kg m s^-1 and with respect to the Target Frame, θ_si has no units. The relation of angle and mass is mathematically demonstrated, as well, by No-Ping Chen, et. al.
• l_f, m_f and t_f are the fundamental measures, more precise expressions for Planck’s units – length, mass, and time – that consider the effects of length contraction associated with discrete measure.
• n_Tu is a count of t_f equal to the age of the universe.
• n_Mu is a count of m_f equal to the total of mass/energy in the universe.

• M_acr is the rate of mass accretion in the universe.
• M_vis is the mass in that domain of the universe that is presently visible.
• M_obs is the mass in that domain of the universe that is presently visible or will be visible given infinite elapsed time.
• M_dk is the mass in that domain of the universe that will never be visible.
• M_uobs is the mass in that domain of the universe that will eventually be visible but is not presently visible.
• M_tot is the mass in the entire domain that makes up the universe (i.e., 1 or 100%).
• M_f is the mass in that domain of the universe that is fundamental. Its physical significance describes a pivot point with respect to the remaining domains.
• V_U is the volume of the universe.
• A_U is the age of the universe.
• R_U is the radius of the universe.
• D_U is the diameter of the universe.

Support can be found using the expression for mass accretion and the elapsed time associated with the quantum epoch, to resolve the present-day density and temperature of the CMB. There are no free variables.

An assessment of the total mass of the universe is challenging. In this article we present expressions which tell us how much mass there is, but also tell us that the mass of the universe must be increasing. Before we can begin, we must first discuss how we achieved this. We use an approach to classical description called Measurement Quantization (MQ).

MQ is a nomenclature, a physically significant way of describing phenomena. Using expressions which describe discrete gravity along with discrete expressions for Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, escape velocity and the speed of light, we resolve three properties of measure: discreteness, countability and in reference to three frames of reference.

Noably, we find that the existing laws of nature are written from the perspective of the internal Measurement Frame of the observer and the observer's relation to other phenomena. There are no references to the Target Frame of the universe, or consideration of its properties. Using the MQ approach - counts n_L, n_M, and n_T of fundamental units of measure l_f, m_f, and t_f - we demonstrate that the Measurement Frame is discrete, while the Target Frame is non-discrete. We also demonstrate that considering the difference between these frames allows us to resolve expressions and values for the physical constants and the laws of nature.

Importantly, we can resolve a new description of the universe that differs from the ΛCDM approach. We call this alternative, observational domains. Specifically, we use elapsed time to describe what is presently visible Ω_vis, such that the observable Ω_obs is what will be visible given infinite elapsed time. The difference between these is the unobserved Ω_uobs. And that part of the universe that can never be observed due to the metric expansion of space we call the dark Ω_dk.

Notably, these domains overlap with the notions of dark matter, dark energy and the existing visible matter in the universe. We emphasize, they overlap, but are not replacements.

That said, to understand mass accretion, we begin with the fundamental domain and the mass M_f associated with that domain.

M_f describes the mass associated with the fundamental domain, a mathematical pivot point between the observable and dark mass. Notably, the expression for M_f takes the same form as that of the radius of the universe R_U=A_Uθ_sil_f/ t_f. Both expressions consists of all constants except for the age of the universe (i.e., A_U=n_Tut_f).

To proceed, we also need expressions for the remaining domains. These are resolved using an expansion of the fundamental expression - with respect to the internal Measurement Frame, this is the Planck momentum. Derivation of each of the domains can be found in the linked article.

Notably, we presently identify Ω_dk=68.3624% with dark energy and Ω_uobs=26.7887% with dark matter. As noted prior, these domains match descriptions of the CMB power spectrum when using a ΛCDM approach, but not entirely. Dark matter and dark energy are placeholder terms representing a collection of behaviors. See the linked articles for comprehensive descriptions of those phenomena. For now, we need only understand these domains in the geometric sense that they are defined.

We can then combine the domain expressions, as presented in the calculations above, to resolve a description of the total mass of the universe.

But notice, as we previously brought to your attention; the expression for fundamental mass is a function of the age of the universe A_U, which increases with elapsed time. Yet, the fundamental domain is a function of θ_si which is known and measured to be a physical constant - also equal to half of the Planck momentum. Therein, we recognize that the total mass of the universe must be increasing. We resolve the rate of accretion to find that,

The most direct means of experimental confirmation is a measure of the CMB temperature. MQ offers a parameter free description of early universe events, such that the CMB temperature is a direct function of mass accretion.

At the initial formation of the quantum bubble that characterizes the quantum epoch, there is no mass. More relevant, the universe is unable to expand because there exists no means to reference a point external to its spatial framework. Yet, the steady rate increase in mass as described above is ongoing, accompanied by increasing density and increasing temperature, forcing an environment whereby this mass/energy can exist only in some exotic state consistent with a subset of physical laws.

At 363,312 years the universe reaches the prerequisite size necessary for external referencing (i.e., R_U=√3l_f) initiating the expansionary epoch. The accumulated mass 1.5016 10⁵⁰ kg, the elapsed time (which defines the age of the universe when the CMB formed) and the resulting density 4.1750 10^-14 J m^-3 and temperature of the CMB 2.7255 K are all correlated to the accumulated mass. Using an analysis conducted by Fixsen of the most recent measures of the CMB, the predictions of MQ provide digit-for-digit correspondence to five significant digits, the calculation constrained to a measure of the age of the universe.